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Emissions from oil and gas production operations

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Recently, global climate change and air quality have become increasingly important environmental concerns.[1] Consequently, there has been a rise in collaborative international efforts to reduce the concentration of greenhouse gases and criteria pollutants. Greenhouse gases include carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O), occurring naturally and as the result of human activity. In addition, criteria pollutants (1970 amendments to the Clean Air Act required EPA to set National Ambient Air Quality Standards for certain pollutants known to be hazardous to human health) include emissions of nitrogen oxide, sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, and total unburned hydrocarbons. International and national governments are implementing more regulations on air emissions. Drilling contractors and operators in all phases of O&G production can play an important role in environmental stewardship. This is accomplished by reporting carbon emissions from O&G operations, eliminating redundant emission, performing measurements, and leading the industry in efforts to reduce the release of these chemicals.

Since most operations are similar or the same, for on-shore and off shore production; the air emissions will have similar chemistries in both operational areas. The currently applied technology for producing oil and gas from various installations results in three main types of gas emissions[2], namely:

  • Combustion gases consisting of carbon dioxides and minor amounts of carbon monoxide, nitrous oxide, N2O, SO2, and un-combusted hydrocarbons (methane and volatile organic compounds (VOCs)).
  • Hydrocarbons consisting of methane and primarily aliphatic VOCs vented to the atmosphere or escaping from the hydrocarbon processes through fugitive emissions.
  • Releases of halon and other Chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) gases from fire-fighting and refrigeration systems.

Combustion Gases

According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency, offshore oil and gas production was responsible for the release of 6.2 million metric tons of combustion gases in 2013.[3] That's less than onshore production, with an output of 94.8 million metric tons. For comparison, the average emission rates in the United States from coal-fired generation are: 2,249 lbs/MWh of carbon dioxide, 13 lbs/MWh of sulfur dioxide, and 6 lbs/MWh of nitrogen oxides.[4]

Carbon emissions from the burning of fossil fuels has been on the increase since the industrial era; and with more than 85% of the world’s energy coming from fossil fuels, it will remain an important energy source well into the future.[5] As the demand for fossil fuels is growing, so is the volume of CO2 emitted each year. This has led to concerns over the impact of CO2 emissions on global climate change.

Four major sources contribute to the CO2 emissions from the O&G industry:

  • Exhaust form engines, turbines and fired heaters.
  • Gas flaring.
  • Well testing.
  • Other carbon emissions such as CO2 for enhanced oil recovery (EOR) operations.[6]

For example because of the lack of pipelines and gas treating facilities, as much as 30% of the gas produced is flared[7] or is used for powering (directly) hydraulically operated equipment[8] that then vents the gas to the atmosphere. A report by Aleklett[7] includes satellite photos that were claimed to have been taken by NASA of multiple oilfield gas flares in the Bakken and Eagle Ford plays. The illumination from the flares seems to compare in intensity with the illumination of major cities in the regions near the flares. These flares will produce CO2 as well as oxides of sulfur and nitrogen.

The State of North Dakota as well as a major producer,[8] are claimed to be committed to drastically reducing the waste of these hydrocarbon streams by constructing adequate transportation and other ways to use the products in the near future.

Hydrocarbons

Methane and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are emitted via multiple sources: un-combusted fuel gas and diesel, emissions from tanks without vapor recovery units, offshore loading, vents, fugitive emissions (leaks and spills), gas flaring, and well testing.[9]

Methane Emission Details

Rapid worldwide expansion of natural gas developments and use in recent years is drawing attention to the need to improve understanding of methane emissions associated with natural gas.[10] New production technologies and practices, including those involving hydraulic fracturing, necessitate a thorough review of existing quantification methods for fugitive methane emissions from venting, flaring, and equipment leaks associated with natural gas systems and operations.

In the past few years, a broad variety of estimates have emerged regarding methane emissions from the United States natural gas industry sector. Industry surveys noted discrepancies that led to a thorough review of information that led to the improvement of estimation methods and emission factors associated with natural gas system activities. This has manifested itself in the engineering estimations that are used for compiling the U.S. Greenhouse Gas Inventory and in the methods used by companies for reporting under the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's mandatory Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program.

CH4 in the atmosphere is a major component of transient climate pollutants that directly and indirectly contribute to radiative forcing.[11] Additionally, CH4 contributes to maintaining background levels of tropospheric ozone. CH4 is emitted from a variety of natural (e.g., wetlands, oceans, termites) and anthropogenic (e.g., fossil-fuel exploration, livestock, rice cultivation, waste management, and biomass burning) sources.

Methane is a potent “greenhouse gas.” USEPA[12] notes that methane's lifetime in the atmosphere is much shorter than carbon dioxide (CO2), but CH4 is more efficient at trapping radiation than CO2. The report claims that pound for pound, the comparative impact of CH4 on climate change is over 20 times greater than CO2 over a 100-year period. Johnson[13] has published a short review of the role that O&G production contributes to the release of methane to the atmosphere and the actual role it has in global climate change. He notes and cites information that up to 29% of the annual methane loss to the atmosphere comes from O&G production and transportation. He claims that because of the trapping of heat factor of methane vs. CO2, reducing methane emissions in the short term (the next 10 years) should be a global priority.

Atmospheric abundance of CH4 has steadily risen from pre-industrial levels of about 700 nmol mol to 1 (ppb) with large annual fluctuations in its growth rate. Several studies of the distribution and lifetime of CH4 have reported conflicting results. Recent studies have suggested the existence of previously unrecognized sources of CH4. Satellite observations, for instance, have been combined with inverse modeling techniques using CH4 retrievals from the Scanning Imaging Absorption Spectrometer for Atmospheric Chartography (SCIAMACHY) to provide a global distribution map of CH4 suggesting many emissions hot spots in areas where surface observations are scarce.

During the BARCA (Balanço Atmosphérico Regional de Carbono na Amazônia) campaign[14], the earliest airborne in situ measurements of CH4 over the Amazon region revealed strong CH4 emissions from the Amazonian wetlands. Regular aircraft observations from the CARIBIC (Civil Aircraft for the Regular Investigation of the atmosphere Based on an Instrument Container) program suggest strong biogenic emissions from India that cannot be attributed to rice cultivation alone. Such studies show that we still have a poor understanding of the sources of CH4 emissions is and that more knowledge of the sources of CH4 emissions and of the distribution of the sources is needed. The conclusions of these studies, as well as the economic impact of losing as much as 30% of all produced natural gas to the various causes, provides a great incentive to the O&G industries to provide leadership for finding practical solutions.

CFC gases

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are nontoxic, nonflammable chemicals that contain carbon, chlorine, and fluorine atoms. CFCs are used in the manufacture of aerosol sprays, blowing agents for foams and packing materials, solvents, and refrigerants. They are classified as halocarbons, compounds that contain atoms of carbon and halogen. The associated effect of emitted CFC gases to the depletion of the stratospheric ozone layer resulted in the Montreal Protocol in 1985. The objective was to stop these emissions by phasing out the use of chlorofluorocarbons and halon by the end of that century, thus affecting the petroleum industry. Now, all UN recognized nations have ratified the treaty and continue to phase out the production of chemicals that deplete the ozone layer while searching for ozone-friendly alternatives

Measuring air emissions

Industry and regulatory agencies have spent a great deal of study and effort to estimate air emissions from oil and gas.[15] The EPA's "AP-42" emissions estimating guideline is the standard for estimating emissions from most fugitive and combustion sources. Additionally, the EPA's "Gas Star" program helped to identify fuel gas emissions sources and rates. In the mid 1990's, the EPA developed guidance documents for estimating emissions from gas plants. The Texas Commission on Environmental Quality (TCEQ; a.k.a. TNRCC) developed guidelines and rules for determining emissions from combustion devices. A joint industry and government initiative produced "Gly-Calc" to determine emissions from glycol dehydration units. The American Petroleum Institute developed recent guidelines for the calculation of greenhouse gas emissions. Because of the calculation routines, advances in database programs, and internet reporting capabilities British Petroleum can estimate emissions from over 280 properties in the Permian Basin. BP was the first company to apply the jointly developed techniques in estimating emissions for a large number of properties.

The emission system was developed to meet two goals: 1) To gather regulatory required data for reporting emissions to the TCEQ and 2) To provide data for an intra-company greenhouse gas reporting and reduction program. Additionally, the program resulted in greater operating efficiencies and a reduction of air emissions. In 2010, Eni E&P developed the Air Quality Monitoring Standard, a guide for Eni E&P subsidiaries for the design, installation, and management of fixed Air Quality Monitoring Systems (AQMS). Although fixed AQMS are the most complete and precise monitoring tools, their installation is not always necessary in order to manage air quality issues. Therefore, before installing a monitoring station, a general structured assessment of air quality and emissions' should be carried out in order to eventually identify different and/or cheaper monitoring options. Eni E&P gained some important expertise regarding this issue in 2011 via a structured project implemented in two Tunisian oil centers, one located in the desert, the other in a coastal area.

The project has foreseen the on-site detailed evaluation of emission sources, the monitoring of air quality through a two-week spot campaign, and the implementation of a gap analysis based on reference limits mainly provided by the Tunisian normative framework and by a company standard. Because of experience gained during the project implementation in Tunisia, it is now possible to complete the currently available Air Quality Monitoring Company Standard by adding a methodological tool for carrying out a structured Air Quality Monitoring and Emissions Assessment (AQMEA) which should support Subsidiaries identifying suitable air monitoring strategies based on local particular needs. Due to the increasing attention on environmental issues of public opinion and governments of countries where Eni E&P operates, the attentive evaluation of air quality inside and around industrial operative sites is nowadays considered as a very important activity. For this reason, after some experience on the field, a structured approach to air quality issues focused on local needs can be defined, which could be crucial for supporting subsidiaries evaluating their on-site air quality. Basically, a methodological tool can now be created, which should be able to identify monitoring strategies representing a trade-off between costs (man-hours, monitoring instruments to be rented or bought etc.) and benefits (consistent evaluation of air quality, satisfaction of legislative and local authorities, stakeholders,etc.).

Reducing emissions

Infrastructure

A proactive approach in reducing emissions involves adequately knowing emission inventories, the emission sources, and those parameters controlling the individual emissions; evaluating alternative technologies that can control and reduce the emissions; and finally obtaining knowledge of the economic impact of introducing alternative emission control technology.[9] Several examples are noted, The Norwegian Oil Industry Association applied the proactive approach in an extensive two-year environmental program completed in 1993. Air emissions from E&P were an important part of this program. In 2012, Abu Dhabi Marine Operating Company (ADMA-OPCO) successfully eliminated gas flaring in offshore operations at Zakum with a vapor recovery unit (VRU).[16] The Zakum gas processing facility (GPF) recovers 3,924 tons per year of CO2, 123.6 tons per year of CO, and 21.6 tons per year of NOx. A total of 612 million standard cubic feet per year of gas can be recovered, saving $835,380 per year.

Because complying with environmental regulations is a challenge to the industry fields, various companies have taken the initiative to become committed to complying with the government and industry environmental standards by implementing programs to enhance air quality. Developing new pipeline infrastructures are key to reducing methane and other carbon emissions for the O&G sector. The needed construction of new gas handling facilities is in turn driven by the economic value of these resources as well as EPA regulations (EPA (2012), 40 CFR 98 Subpart W(USEPA (2012) and 40 CFR 60 Subpart OOOO (USEPA (2013). A recent speaker at a meeting of the American Chemical Society (Tulsa, OK 9/16/15) claims that poorly maintained gathering lines may lose as much as 10% of the natural gas inserted into the line before it can enter a treating facilities.

Wet hydrocarbon recovery

Wet hydrocarbon recovery eliminates the continuous use of burn pit for wet HC from the blow down system and re-injects it back into the HC crude lines. The modification also allows for compliance with environmental regulations by eliminating the continuous flaring of wet HC, reserving the lifetime of the burn pits and protect the groundwater aquifer from contaminants.

Reducing SO2

One process used for sulfur oxide reduction uses the Claus reactions, a catalytic chemical process that converts gaseous hydrogen sulfide (H2S) into elemental sulfur (S)[17]. Claus is commonly referred to as a sulfur recovery unit (SRU) and is widely used to produce sulfur from the hydrogen sulfide found in raw natural gas and from the by-product sour gases containing hydrogen sulfide derived from refining petroleum crude oil and other industrial facilities.

Several hundred Claus recovery units are in operation worldwide. In fact, the vast majority of the 68,000,000 metric tons of sulfur produced worldwide in 2010 was by-product sulfur from petroleum refining and natural gas processing plants.

Upgrading sulfur units from the Claus process to SUPERCLAUS process achieves 98.7 % of sulfur recovery and reduces SO2 emissions by installing new condensers with coalescer oil skimmers and changing the converter catalysts. All of these modifications resulted in decreasing the SO2 emissions by 25 %. The third idea is Flare Gas Recovery System which the system will recover the flare gases from the flare headers and then compressed the gas to 260 psig for feeding the plant low pressure sour gas header. The ultimate goal of this system is to avoid visible smoke and flames from flaring systems and to comply with environmental regulations. The system is very attractive not only reducing flares' emissions but also it would recover the valuable gases being wasted to the flare stack.

CO2 sequestration

Sequestration is one option that is gaining interest to stabilize and reduce the concentration of CO2. Carbon capture and storage technology involves the process of trapping and separating the CO2, transporting it to a storage location, and then storing it long-term so that it does not enter into the atmosphere.[18] It is not a new technology and has been used by petroleum, chemical, and power industries for decades.[19] In fact, carbon capture was first used in Texas in 1972 as a method to enhance oil recovery.[20]

Purpose

Figure. 2—Three types of CO2 sequestration.

CO2 emissions from the burning of fossil fuels has been on the incline since the industrial era; and with more than 85% of the world’s energy coming from fossil fuels, it will remain an important energy source well into the future.[21] As the demand for fossil fuels is growing, so is the volume of CO2 emitted each year. This has led to concerns over the impact of CO2 emissions on global climate change. CO2 sequestration is an option that is gaining interest to stabilize and reduce the concentration of CO2.

Types

After CO2 is captured at the source, it must be safely sequestered or stored away.[22] There are three types of CO2 sequestration: terrestrial, geologic, and mineralization (Figure 2). More than 150 CO2 sequestration projects are in progress in North America alone.

References

  1. ↑ Cadigan, M.F., Peyton, K. 2005. Baselining and Reducing Air Emissions from an Offshore Drilling Contractor's Perspective. Presented at the SPE/EPA/DOE Exploration and Production Environmental Conference, Galveston, Texas, USA, 7-9 March. SPE-94432-MS. http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/94432-MS.
  2. ↑ Husdal, G. 1994. Air Emissions from Offshore Oil and Gas Production. Presented at the SPE Health, Safety and Environment in Oil and Gas Exploration and Production Conference, 25-27 January, Jakarta. SPE-27127-MS. http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/27127-MS.
  3. ↑ United States Environmental Protection Agency. Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program. http://www.epa.gov/ghgreporting/ghgdata/reported/petroleum.html.
  4. ↑ United States Environmental Protection Agency. Air Emissions. http://www.epa.gov/cleanenergy/energy-and-you/affect/air-emissions.html.
  5. ↑ Ramharack, R.M., Aminian, K., and Ameri, S. 2010. Impact of Carbon Dioxide Sequestration in Gas/Condensate Reservoirs. Presented at the SPE Eastern Regional Meeting, Morgantown, West Virginia, USA, 13–15 October. SPE-139083-MS. http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/139083-MS.
  6. ↑ Frenier, W.W. and Ziauddin, M. 2013. Chemistry for Enhancing the Production of Oil and Gas Richardson, TX: Society of Petroleum Engineers.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Aleklett, K., 2013,Gas Flaring at Bakken and Eagle Ford Aleklett's Energy Mix (Blog) 1/29/13, http://aleklett.wordpress.com/2013/01/29/gas-flaring-at-bakken-and-eagle-ford/, Uppsala, Sweeden, Uppsala University, Uppsala Global Energy Systems Group (UGES).
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Rahim, S., 2013,Bakken’s Top Producer Wants to Snuff out Natural Gas Flaring.Midwest Energy news 3/4/2013, http://www.midwestenergynews.com/2013/03/04/bakkens-top-producer-wants-to-snuff-out-flaring/, Washington, D.C., E&E Publishing
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Husdal, G. 1994. Air Emissions from Offshore Oil and Gas Production. Presented at the SPE Health, Safety and Environment in Oil and Gas Exploration and Production Conference, 25-27 January, Jakarta. SPE-27127-MS. http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/27127-MS.
  10. ↑ Ritter, K., Shires, T.M., and Lev-On, M. 2014. Methane Emissions From Natural Gas Systems: A Comparative Assessment for Select Industry Segments. Presented at the SPE International Conference on Health, Safety, and Environment, Long Beach, California, USA, 17-19 March. SPE-168379-MS. http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/168379-MS.
  11. ↑ Nara, H., Tanimoto, H., Tohjima, Y. et al. 2014. Emissions of Methane from Offshore Oil and Gas Platforms in Southeast Asia. Scientific Reports 4 6503. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/srep06503.
  12. ↑ 12. USEPA, 2013a, Methane Emissions. US Enviornmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C., http://epa.gov/climatechange/ghgemissions/gases/ch4.html, 12/7/13, 9/9/2013
  13. ↑ Johnson, J. 2014. Methane's Role in Climate Change. Chemical & Engineering News 92(27): 10-15.
  14. ↑ Beck, V., Chen, H., Gerbig, C., Bergamaschi, P., Bruhwiler, L., Houweling, S., Röckmann, T., Kolle, O. and Steinbach, J. 2012. Methane Airborne Measurements and Comparison to Global Models During Barca JOURNAL OF GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH 117: 1-16. doi:10.1029/2011JD017345.
  15. ↑ Johnstone, J.E., Stobbe, A. 2003. Estimating Air Emissions for Permian Basin Oil and Gas Properties. Presented at the SPE/EPA/DOE Exploration and Production Environmental Conference, San Antonio, Texas, USA, 10-12 March. SPE-80574-MS. http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/80574-MS
  16. ↑ Mian, M.A. 2012. Air Emissions Reduction and Zero Flaring and Venting. Presented at the Abu Dhabi International Petroleum Conference and Exhibition, Abu Dhabi, 11-14 November. SPE-161558-MS. http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/161558-MS.
  17. ↑ ChemEngineering. Claus process. https://chemengineering.wikispaces.com/Claus+process.
  18. ↑ Ronca, D. 2014. How Carbon Capture Works, http://science.howstuffworks.com/environmental/green-science/carbon-capture1.htm (accessed 25 September 2014).
  19. ↑ Carbon Sequestration Leadership Forum. 2011. CO2 Capture—Does It Work? inFocus http://www.cslforum.org/publications/documents/CSLF_inFocus_CO2Capture_DoesItWork.pdf.
  20. ↑ Richey, S. 2013. Carbon Sequestration: Myth or Hope?, http://www.steverichey.com/writing-samples/climate-change/carbon-sequestration-myth-or-hope/ (accessed 23 September 2014).
  21. ↑ Ramharack, R.M., Aminian, K., and Ameri, S. 2010. Impact of Carbon Dioxide Sequestration in Gas/Condensate Reservoirs. Presented at the SPE Eastern Regional Meeting, Morgantown, West Virginia, USA, 13–15 October. SPE-139083-MS. http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/139083-MS.
  22. ↑ The University of Utah, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering. 2011. Carbon Capture and Sequestration, http://co2.egi.utah.edu/ (accessed 4 September 2014).

Noteworthy papers in OnePetro

Agarwal, A., Singh, A.K. 2011. Evaluation of Fugitive Methane Emission factor for Oil and Gas in India. Presented at the SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition Denver, Colorado, USA, 30 October-2 November. SPE-144628-MS. http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/144628-MS.

Bakken, J., Langorgen, O., Husdal, G., et al. 2008. Improving Accuracy In Calculating NOx Emissions From Gas Flaring. Presented at the SPE International Conference on Health, Safety, and Environment in Oil and Gas Exploration and Production, 15-17 April, Nice, France. SPE-111561-MS. http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/111561-MS. 

Barcelo, L. and Kline, J. 2012. The Cement Industry Roadmap to Reduce Carbon Emissions. Presented at the Carbon Management Technology Conference, Orlando, Florida, USA, 7-9 February. CMTC-152259-MS. http://dx.doi.org/10.7122/152259-MS.

Bradley, D.D. and Ontko, R. 2013. The Great Emissions Roundup: Strategies for Permitting Maintenance, Startup, and Shutdown (MSS) Emissions at Upstream Oil and Gas Facilities. Presented at the SPE Americas E&P Health, Safety, Security and Environmental Conference, Galveston, Texas, USA, 18-20 March. SPE-163762-MS. http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/163762-MS.

Cadigan, M.F., Peyton, K. 2005. Baselining and Reducing Air Emissions from an Offshore Drilling Contractor's Perspective. Presented at the SPE/EPA/DOE Exploration and Production Environmental Conference, Galveston, Texas, USA, 7-9 March. SPE-94432-MS. http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/94432-MS.

Cadigan, M.F., Kerric, P. Baselining and Reducing Air Emissions from an Offshore Drilling Contractor's Perspective. Presented at the SPE/EPA/DOE Exploration and Production Environmental Conference, Galveston, Texas, USA, 7-9 March. SPE-94432-MS. http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/94432-MS.

Djoko, S. 2002. Reducing Hydrocarbon Emission : Case Study At Plumpang Terminal Indonesia. Presented at the SPE International Conference on Health, Safety and Environment in Oil and Gas Exploration and Production, Kuala Lumpur, 20-22 March. SPE-74109-MS. http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/74109-MS.

Frederick, J.D. 1993. Air Emissions Trading SPE/EPA Exploration and Production Environmental Conference, San Antonio, Texas, USA, 7-10 March. SPE-25947-MS. http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/25947-MS.

Freund, P. 2002. Technology for Avoiding CO2 Emissions. WPC-32402. Presented at the 17th World Petroleum Congress, Rio de Janeiro, 1-5 September. https://www.onepetro.org/conference-paper/WPC-32402.

Hatamian, H. 1997. Air Emissions in the Up-stream Petroleum Operations. Presented at the SPE/UKOOA European Environment Conference, Aberdeen, United Kingdom, 15-16 April. SPE-37834-MS. http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/37834-MS.

Huglen, O. and Vik, R. 2001. Reducing VOC Emissions from Large Crude Carriers. Presented at the Offshore Technology Conference, Houston, 30 April-3. OTC-13241-MS. http://dx.doi.org/10.4043/13241-MS.

Jelinek, K.A., Rooney, T.C., and Webb, M.G. 1993. Fugitive Emissions From an Offshore Oil and Gas Production Platform. Presented at the SPE/EPA Exploration and Production Environmental Conference, San Antonio, Texas, USA, 7-10 March. SPE-25943-MS. http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/25943-MS.

Meeks, N.N. 1992. Air Toxics Emissions From Gas-Fired Engines. J Pet Tech 44 (07): 840 - 845. SPE-20614-PA. http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/20614-PA.

Mian, M.A. 2012. Air Emissions Reduction and Zero Flaring and Venting. Presented at the Abu Dhabi International Petroleum Conference and Exhibition, Abu Dhabi, 11-14 November. SPE-161558-MS. http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/161558-MS.

Schievelbein, V.H. 1997. Reducing Methane Emissions from Glycol Dehydrators. Presented at the SPE/EPA Exploration and Production Environmental Conference, Dallas, 3-5 March.SPE-37929-MS. http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/37929-MS.

Trout, L., Johnstone and J.E. 2003. Changes In Texas Air Emission Grandfathering Rules. Presented at the SPE/EPA/DOE Exploration and Production Environmental Conference, San Antonio, Texas, USA, 10-12 March. SPE-80601-MS. http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/80601-MS.

Vlasenko, V.S., Slesarenko, V.V., and Gulkov, A.N. 2014. Recuperation Vapors of Crude for Reducing Polluting Emissions. Presented at the The Twenty-fourth International Ocean and Polar Engineering Conference, Busan, Korea, 15-20 June. ISOPE-I-14-129. https://www.onepetro.org/conference-paper/ISOPE-I-14-129.

Zamzam, M.M., Reddy, V.B., Al Bisher, K.I., et al. 2012. Reducing Energy and Emissions through Predictive Performance Monitoring System. Presented at the Abu Dhabi International Petroleum Conference and Exhibition, Abu Dhabi, 11-14 November. SPE-161410-MS. http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/161410-MS.

External links

EPA. Gas Star Program.

United States Office of Fossil Fuel Energy. Methane Hydrate. 

Eni. 2010. The environment and natural resources. From Annual Report 2010. 

Environmental Protection Agency. Air Pollution Monitoring. 

Environmental Protection Agency. Natural Gas Star Program. 

See also

CO2_sequestration

Glossary:Methane

Category

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